Source - Acidic waters usually attain their acidity from the seepage of acid mine waters, or acidic industrial wastes. Acid mine waters are frequently too low in pH to provide suitable drinking water even after neutralization and Treatment.

Treatment - Acidic water can be corrected by injecting soda ash or caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) into the water supply to raise the pH. Utilization of these two chemicals slightly increases the alkalinity in direct proportion to the amount used. Acidic water can also be neutralized up to a point by running it through calcite, corosex or a combination of the two. The calcite and the corosex both neutralize by dissolving and they add hardness to the water as the neutralization takes place; therefore, they both need to be replenished on a periodic basis.

Source - Aluminum (Al+3) is an abundant metal in the Earth's surface, but its solubility in water is so low that it is seldom a concern in municipal or industrial water systems. The majority of natural water contains from 0.1 ppm up to 9.0 ppm of Aluminum, however the primary Source of Aluminum in drinking water comes from the use of aluminum sulfate (alum) as a coagulant in water Treatment plants. The total dietary exposure to aluminum salts averages around 20 mg/day. Aluminum is on the US EPA's Secondary Drinking Water Standards list with suggested levels of 0.05 - 0.2 mg/l; dependent on case-by-case circumstances.

Treatment - Aluminum can be removed from water by a cation exchanger but hydrochloric acid or sulfuric acid must be used for regeneration to remove the aluminum from the resin. While this is suitable for an industrial application it is not recommended for domestic use unless it is in the form of a cation exchange tank. Reverse Osmosis will reduce the aluminum content of drinking water by 98 + %. Distillation will reduce the aluminum content of water by 99 + %. Electrodialysis is also very effective in the reduction of aluminum. 

Source - Ammonia (NH3) gas, usually expressed as Nitrogen, is extremely soluble in water. It is the natural product of decay of organic nitrogen compounds. Ammonia finds its way into surface supplies from the runoff in agricultural areas where it is applied as fertilizer. It can also find its way to underground aquifers from animal feed lots. Ammonia is oxidized to nitrate by bacterial action. A concentration of 0.1 to 1.0 ppm is typically found in most surface water supplies, and is expressed as N. Ammonia is not usually found in well water supplies because the bacteria in the soil converts it nitrates. The concentration of Ammonia is not restricted by drinking water standards. Since Ammonia is corrosive to copper alloys it is a concern in cooling systems and in boiler feed.

Treatment - Ammonia can be destroyed chemically by chlorination. The initial reaction forms chloramine, and must be completely broken down before there is a chlorine residual. Organic contaminants in the waste stream will be destroyed by the chlorine before it will react with the ammonia. Ammonia can also be removed by cation exchange resin in the hydrogen form, which is the utilization of acid as a regenerant. Degasification will also remove Ammonia. 

Source - Arsenic (As) is not easily dissolved in water, therefore, if it is found in a water supply, it usually comes from mining or metallurgical operations or from runoff from agricultural areas where materials containing arsenic were used as industrial poisons. Arsenic and phosphate easily substitute for one another chemically, therefore commercial grade phosphate can have some arsenic in it. Arsenic is highly toxic and has been classified by the US EPA as a carcinogen. The current MCL for arsenic is 0.05 mg/l which was derived from toxicity considerations rather than carcinogenicity.

Treatment - If in an inorganic form, arsenic can be removed or reduced by conventional water Treatment processes. There are five ways to remove inorganic contaminants; reverse osmosis, activated alumina, ion exchange, activated carbon, and distillation. Filtration through activated carbon will reduce the amount of arsenic in drinking water from 40 - 70%. Anion exchange can reduce it by 90 - 100%. Reverse Osmosis has a 90% removal rate, and Distillation will remove 98%. If the arsenic is present in organic form, it can be removed by oxidation of the organic material and subsequent coagulation.

Source - Bacteria are tiny organisms occurring naturally in water. Not all types of bacteria are harmful. Many organisms found in water are of no health concern since they do not cause disease. Biological contamination may be separated into two groups: (1) pathogenic (disease causing) and (2) non-pathogenic (not disease causing). Pathogenic bacteria cause illnesses such as typhoid fever, dysentery, gastroenteritis, infectious hepatitis, and cholera. All water supplies should be tested for biological content prior to use and consumption. E.Coli (Escherichia Coli) is the coliform bacterial organism which is looked for when testing the water. This organism is found in the intestines and fecal matter of humans and animals. If E.Coli is found in a water supply along with high nitrate and chloride levels, it usually indicates that waste has contaminated the supply from a septic system or sewage dumping, and has entered by way of runoff, a fractured well casing, or broken lines. If coliform bacteria is present, it is an indication that disease causing bacteria may also be present. Four or fewer colonies / 100 ml of coliforms, in the absence of high nitrates and chlorides, implies that surface water is entering the water system. If pathogenic bacteria is suspected, a sample of water should be submitted to the Board of Health or US EPA for bacteriological testing and recommendations. The most common non-pathogenic bacteria found in water, is iron bacteria. Iron bacteria can be readily identified by the red, feathery floc which forms overnight at the bottom of a sample bottle containing iron and iron bacteria.

Treatment - Bacteria can be treated by microfiltration, reverse osmosis, ultrafiltration, or chemical oxidation and disinfection. Ultraviolet sterilization will also kill bacteria; but turbidity, color, and organic impurities interfere with the transmission of ultraviolet energy and may decrease the disinfection efficiency below levels to insure destruction. Ultraviolet Treatment also does not provide residual bactericidal action, therefore periodic flushing and disinfection must be done. Ultraviolet sterilization is usually followed by 0.2 micron filtration when dealing with high purity water systems. The most common and undisputed method of bacteria destruction is chemical oxidation and disinfection. Ozone injection into a water supply is one form of chemical oxidation and disinfection. A residual of 0.4 mg/l must be established and a retention time of four minutes is required. Chlorine injection is the most widely recognized method of chemical oxidation and disinfection. Chlorine must be fed at 3 to 5 ppm to treat for bacteria and a residual of 0.4 ppm of free chlorine must be maintained for 30 minutes in order to meet US EPA standards. Reverse Osmosis will remove 99+ % of the bacteria in a drinking water system.

Source - Barium (Ba+2)is a naturally occurring alkaline earth metal found primarily in the midwest. Traces of the element are found in surface and ground waters. It can also be found in oil and gas drilling muds, waste from coal fired power plants, jet fuels, and automotive paints. Barium is highly toxic when its soluble salts are ingested. The current MCL for Barium is 2.0 mg/l.

Treatment - Sodium form cation exchange units (softeners) are very effective at removing Barium. Reverse Osmosis is also extremely effective in its removal, as well as Electrodialysis.

Source - Benzene, a byproduct of petroleum refining, is used as an intermediate in the production of synthesized plastics, and is also an additive in gasoline. Gasoline contains approximately 0.8 percent benzene by volume. Benzene is classified as a volatile organic chemical (VOC) and is considered a carcinogen by the US EPA. Benzene makes its way into water supplies from leaking fuel tanks, industrial chemical waste, pharmaceutical industry waste, or from run off of pesticides. The current US EPA MCL for Benzene is 0.005 mg/l.

Treatment - Benzene can be removed with activated carbon. Approximately 1000 gallons of water containing 570 ppb of benzene can be treated with 0.35 lbs of activated carbon, in other words; 94,300 gallons of water can be treated for every cubic foot of carbon. The benzene must be in contact with the carbon for a minimum of 10 minutes. If the required flow rate is 5 gpm, then 50 gallon of carbon is required; which converts to approx. 7 cu. ft. The activated carbon must be replaced when exhausted.

Source - The Bicarbonate (HCO3) ion is the principal alkaline constituent in almost all water supplies. Alkalinity in drinking water supplies seldom exceeds 300 mg/l. Bicarbonate alkalinity is introduced into the water by CO2 dissolving carbonate-containing minerals. Alkalinity control is important in boiler feed water, cooling tower water, and in the beverage industry. Alkalinity neutralizes the acidity in fruit flavors; and in the textile industry, it interferes with acid dying. Alkalinity is known as a "buffer."

Treatment - In the pH range of 5.0 to 8.0 there is a balance between excess CO2 and bicarbonate ions. The bicarbonate alkalinity can be reduced by removing the free CO2 through aeration. The alkalinity can also be reduced by feeding acid to lower the pH. At pH 5.0 there is only CO2 and 0 alkalinity. A strong base Anion Exchanger will also remove alkalinity.

Source - Borate B(OH)4- is a compound of Boron. Most of the world's boron is contained in sea water. Sodium borate occurs in arid regions where inland seas once existed but have long since evaporated. Boron is frequently present in fresh water supplies in these same areas in the form of non-ionized boric acid. The amount of boric acid is not limited by drinking water standards, but it can be damaging to citrus crops if it is present in irrigation water and becomes concentrated in the soil.

Treatment - Boron behaves like silica when it is in an aqueous solution. It can be removed with an Anion Exchanger or adsorbed utilizing an Activated Carbon Filter.

Source - Bromine is found in sea water and exists as the bromide ion at a level of about 65 mg/l. Bromine has been used in swimming pools and cooling towers for disinfection, however use in drinking water is not recommended. Ethylene bromide is used as an anti-knock additive in gasoline, and methyl bromide is a soil fumigant. Bromine is extremely reactive and corrosive, and will produce irritation and burning to exposed tissues. Over 0.05 mg/l in fresh water may indicate the presence of industrial wastes, possibly from the use of pesticides of biocides containing bromine. Bromide is extensively used in the pharmaceutical industry, and occurs normally in blood in the range of 1.5 to 50 mg/l.

Treatment - Reverse Osmosis will remove 93 -96 % of the bromide from drinking water. Since bromine is a disinfectant, it along with the disinfection by-products can also be removed with Activated Carbon, Ultrafiltration, or Electrodialysis.

Source - Cadmium enters the environment through a variety of industrial operations, it is an impurity found in zinc. By-products from mining, smelting, electroplating, pigment, and plasticizer production can contain cadmium. Cadmium emissions come from fossil fuel use. Cadmium makes its way into the water supplies as a result of deterioration of galvanized plumbing, industrial waste or fertilizer contamination.. The US EPA Primary Drinking Water Standards lists Cadmium with a 0.005 mg/l MCL.

Treatmen - Cadmium can be removed from drinking water with a sodium form cation exchanger (softener). Reverse Osmosis will remove 95 - 98 % of the cadmium in the water. Electrodialysis will also remove the majority of the cadmium.

Source - Calcium is the major component of hardness in water and is usually in the range of 5 - 500 mg/l, as CaCO3 . Calcium is derived from nearly all rock, but the greatest concentrations come from limestone and gypsum. Calcium ions are the principal cations in most natural waters. Calcium reduction is required in treating cooling tower makeup. Complete removal is required in metal finishing, textile operations, and boiler feed applications.

Treatment - Calcium, as with all hardness, can be removed with a simple sodium form cation exchanger (softener). Reverse Osmosis will remove 95 - 98 % of the calcium in the water. Electrodialysis and Ultrafiltration also will remove calcium. Calcium can also be removed with the hydrogen form cation exchanger portion of a deionizer system.

Source - Free carbon dioxide (CO2) exists in varying amounts in most natural water supplies. Most well waters will contain less than 50 ppm. Carbon Dioxide in water yields an acidic condition. Water (H2O) plus carbon dioxide (CO2) yields carbonic acid (H2CO3). The dissociation of carbonic acid yields hydrogen (H+) and bicarbonate alkalinity (HCO3). The pH value will drop as the concentration of carbon dioxide increases, and conversely will increase as the bicarbonate alkalinity content increases.

Water with a pH of 3.5 or below generally, contains mineral acids such as sulfuric or hydrochloric acid. Carbon Dioxide can exist in waters with pH values from 3.6 to 8.4, but will never be present in waters having a pH of 8.5 or above. The pH value is not a measurement of the amount of carbon dioxide in the water, but rather the relationship of carbon dioxide and bicarbonate alkalinity.

Treatment - Free CO2 can be easily dissipated by aeration. A two column deionizer (consisting of a hydrogen form strong acid cation and a hydroxide form strong base anion) will also remove the carbon dioxide. The cation exchanger adds the hydrogen ion (H+) which shifts the above equation to the left in favor of water and carbon dioxide release. The anion resin removes the carbon dioxide by actually removing the bicarbonate ion. A forced draft degasifier placed between the cation and anion will serve to blow off the CO2 before it reaches the anion bed, thus reducing the capacity requirements for the anion resin. The CO2 can be eliminated by raising the pH to 8.5 or above with a soda ash or caustic soda chemical feed system.

Source - Carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) is a volatile organic chemical (VOC), and is primarily used in the manufacture of chlorofluoromethane but also in grain fumigants, fire extinguishers, solvents, and cleaning agents. Many water supplies across the country have been found to contain measurable amounts of VOC's. VOC's pose a possible health risk because a number of them are probable or known carcinogens. The detection of VOC's in a water supply indicates that a pollution incident has occurred, because these chemicals are man-made. See Volatile Organic Chemicals for a complete listing. The US EPA has classified carbon tetrachloride as a probable human carcinogen and established an MCL of 0.005 mg/l.

Treatment - Reverse Osmosis will remove 70 to 80% of the VOC's in drinking water as will ultrafiltration and electrodialysis. Carbon tetrachloride as well as the other volatile organic chemicals (VOC's) can also be removed from drinking water with activated carbon filtration. The adsorption capacity of the carbon will vary with each type of VOC. The carbon manufacturers can run computer projections on many of these chemicals and give an estimate as to the amount of VOC which can be removed before the carbon will need replacement.

Source - Chloride (Cl-1) is one of the major anions found in water and are generally combined with calcium, magnesium, or sodium. Since almost all chloride salts are highly soluble in water, the chloride content ranges from 10 to 100 mg/l. Sea water contains over 30,000 mg/l as NaCl. Chloride is associated with the corrosion of piping because of the compounds formed with it; for example, magnesium chloride can generate hydrochloric acid when heated. Corrosion rates and the iron dissolved into the water from piping increases as the sodium chloride content of the water is increased. The chloride ion is instrumental in breaking down passivating films which protect ferrous metals and alloys from corrosion, and is one of the main causes for the pitting corrosion of stainless steel. The SMCL (suggested maximum contaminant level) for chloride is 250 mg/l which is due strictly to the objectionable salty taste produced in drinking water.

Treatment - Reverse Osmosis will remove 90 - 95% of the chlorides because of it's salt rejection capabilities. Electrodialysis and distillation are two more processes which can be used to reduce the chloride content of water. Strong base Anion Exchanger which is the later portion of a two column deionizer does an excellent job at removing chlorides for industrial applications.

Source - Chlorine is the most commonly used agent for the disinfection of water supplies. Chlorine is a strong oxidizing agent capable of reacting with many impurities in water including ammonia, proteins, amino acids, iron, and manganese. The amount of chlorine required to react with these substances is called the chlorine demand. Liquid chlorine is sodium hypochlorite. Household liquid bleach is 5-1/4% sodium hypochlorite. Chlorine in the form of a solid is calcium hypochlorite. When chlorine is added to water, a variety of chloro-compounds are formed. An example of this would be when ammonia is present, inorganic compounds known as chloramines are produced. Chlorine also reacts with residual organic material to produce potentially carcinogenic compounds, the Trihalomethanes (THM's): chloroform, bromodichloromethane, bromoform, and chlorodibromomethane. THM regulations has required that other oxidants and disinfectants be considered in order to minimize THM formation. The other chemical oxidants being examined are: potassium permanganate, hydrogen peroxide, chloramines, chlorine dioxide, and ozone. No matter what form of chlorine is added to water, hypochlorite, hypochlorous acid, and molecular chlorine will be formed. The reaction lowers the pH, thus making the water more corrosive and aggressive to steel and copper pipe.

Treatment - Chlorinated water can be dosed with sulfite-bisulfite-sulfur dioxide or passed through a activated carbon filter. Activated carbon will remove 880,000 ppm of free chlorine per cubic foot of media.

Source - Chromium is found in drinking water as a result of industrial waste contamination. The occurrence of excess chromium is relatively infrequent. Proper tests must be run on the water supply to determine the form of the chromium present. Trivalent chromium (Cr=3 ) is slightly soluble in water, and is considered essential in man and animals for efficient lipid, glucose, and protein metabolism. Hexavalent chromium (Cr=6 ) on the other hand is considered toxic. The US EPA classifies chromium as a human carcinogen. The current Drinking Water Standards MCL is .005 mg/l.

Treatment - Trivalent chromium (Cr+3)can be removed with strong acid cation resin regenerated with hydrochloric acid. Hexavalent chromium (Cr+6)on the other hand requires the utilization of a strong base anion exchanger which must be regenerated with caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) NaOH. Reverse Osmosis can effectively reduce both forms of chromium by 90 to 97%. Distillation will also reduce chromium.

Source - Color in water is almost always due to organic material which is usually extracted from decaying vegetation. Color is common in surface water supplies, while it is virtually non-existent in spring water and deep wells. Color in water may also be the result of natural metallic ions (iron and manganese). A yellow tint to the water indicates that humic acids are present, referred to as "tannins". A reddish color would indicate the presence of precipitated iron. Stains on bathroom fixtures and on laundry are often associated with color also. Reddish-brown is ferric hydroxide (iron) which will precipitate when the water is exposed to air. Dark brown to black stains are created by manganese. Excess copper can create blue stains.

Treatment - Color is removed by chemical feed, retention and filtration. Activated carbon filtration will work most effectively to remove color in general. Anion scavenger resin will remove tannins, but must be preceded by a softener or mixed with fine mesh softener resin. See the headings Iron, Manganese, and Copper for information their removal or reduction.

Source - Copper (Cu+3) in drinking water can be derived from rock weathering, however the principal Sources are the corrosion of brass and copper piping and the addition of copper salts when treating water supplies for algae control. Copper is required by the body for proper nutrition. Insufficient amounts of copper leads to iron deficiency. However, high doses of copper can cause liver damage or anemia. The taste threshold for copper in drinking water is 2 - 5 mg/l. The US EPA has proposed a maximum contaminant level (MCL) of 1.3 mg/l for copper.

Treatment - Copper can be reduced or removed with sodium form strong acid cation resin (softener) dependent on the concentration. If the cation resin is regenerated with acid performance will be enhanced. Reverse osmosis or electrodialysis will remove 97 - 98 % of the copper in the water supply. Activated carbon filtration will also remove copper by adsorption.

Source - Cryptosporidium is a protozoan parasite which exists as a round oocyst about 4 to 6 microns in diameter. Oocysts pass through the stomach into the small intestine where it's sporozoites invade the cell lining of the gastrointestinal tract. Symptoms of infection include diarrhea, cramps, nausea, and low grade fever.

Treatment - Filtration is the most effective Treatment for protozoan cysts. Cartridge POU filters rated at 0.5 micron are designed for this purpose.

Source - Cyanide (CN-) is extremely toxic and is not commonly found at significant levels in drinking water. Cyanide is normally found in waste water from metal finishing operations. The US EPA has not classified cyanide as a carcinogen because of inadequate data. No MCL level established or even proposed.

Treatment - Chlorine feed, retention, and filtration will break down the cyanide. Reverse Osmosis or Electrodialysis will remove 90 - 95 % of it.

Source - Fluoride (F+) is a common constituent of many minerals. Municipal water Treatment plants commonly add fluoride to the water for prevention of tooth decay, and maintain a level of 1.5 - 2.5 mg/l. Concentrations above 5 mg/l are detrimental to tooth structure. High concentrations are contained in waste water from the manufacture of glass and steel, as well as from foundry operations. Organic fluorine is present in vegetables, fruits, and nuts. Inorganic fluorine, under the name of sodium fluoride, is a waste product of aluminum and is used in some rat poisons. The MCL established for drinking water by the US EPA is 4 mg/l.

Treatment - Fluoride can be reduced by anion exchange. Adsorption by calcium phosphate, magnesium hydroxide or activated carbon will also reduce the fluoride content of drinking water. Reverse osmosis will remove 93 - 95 % of the fluoride.

Source - Giardia is a protozoan which can exist as a trophozoite, usually 9 to 21 mm long, or as an ovoid cyst, approximately 10 mm long and 6 mm wide. Protozoans are unicellular and colorless organisms that lack a cell wall. When Giardia are ingested by humans, symptoms include diarrhea, fatigue, and cramps. The US EPA has a Treatment technique in effect for Giardia.

Treatment - Slow sand filtration or a diatomaceous earth filter can remove up to 99 % of the cysts when proper preTreatment is utilized. Chemical oxidation - disinfection, Ultrafiltration, and reverse osmosis all effectively remove Giardia cysts. Ozone appears to be very effective against the cysts when utilized in the chemical oxidation - disinfection process instead of chlorine. The most economical and widely used method of removing Giardia is mechanical filtration. Because of the size of the parasite, it can easily be removed with precoat, solid block carbon, ceramic, pleated membrane, and spun wrapped filter cartridges.

Source - Hard water is found over 80% of the United States. The hardness of a water supply is determined by the content of calcium and magnesium salts. Calcium and magnesium combine with bicarbonates, sulfates, chlorides, and nitrates to form these salts. The standard domestic measurement for hardness is grains per gallon (gpg) as CaCO3 . Water having a hardness content less than 0.6 gpg is considered commercially soft. The calcium and magnesium salts which form hardness are divided into two categories: 1) Temporary Hardness (containing carbonates), and 2) Permanent Hardness (containing non-carbonates). Below find listings of the various combinations of permanent and temporary hardness along with their chemical formula and some information on each.

*** Permanent Hardness Salts ***

Sodium salts are also found in household water supplies, but they are considered harmless as long as they do not exist in large quantities. The US EPA currently has no national policy with respect to the hardness or softness of public water supplies.

Treatment - Softeners can remove compensated hardness up to a practical limit of 100 gpg. If the hardness is above 30 gpg or the sodium to hardness ratio is greater than 33%, then economy salt settings can not be used. If the hardness is high, then the sodium will be high after softening, and may require that reverse osmosis be used for producing drinking water.

Source - Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S) is a gas which imparts its "rotten egg" SULFIDE odor to water supplies. Such waters are distasteful for drinking purposes and processes in practically all industries. Most sulfur waters contain from 1 to 5 ppm of hydrogen sulfide. Hydrogen sulfide can interfere with readings obtained from water samples. It turns hardness and pH tests gray, and makes iron tests inaccurate. Chlorine bleach should be added to eliminate the H2S odor; then the hardness, pH and iron tests can be done. Hydrogen sulfide can not be tested in a lab, it must be done in the field. Hydrogen sulfide is corrosive to plumbing fixtures even at low concentrations. H2S fumes will blacken or darken painted surfaces, giving them a "smoked" appearance.

Treatment - H2S requires chlorine to be fed in sufficient quantities to eliminate it, while leaving a residual in the water (3 ppm of chlorine is required for each ppm of hydrogen sulfide). Activated carbon filtration may then be installed to remove the excess chlorine.

Source - Iron occurs naturally in ground waters in three forms, Ferrous Iron (clear water iron), Ferric Iron (red water iron), and Heme Iron (organic iron). Each can exist alone or in combination with the others. Ferrous iron, or clear water iron as it is sometimes called, is ferrous bicarbonate. The water is clear when drawn but when turns cloudy when it comes in contact with air. The air oxidizes the ferrous iron and converts it to ferric iron. Ferric iron, or ferric hydroxide, is visible in the water when drawn; hence the name "red water iron". Heme iron is organically bound iron complexed with decomposed vegetation. The organic materials complexed with the iron are called tannins or lignins. These organics cause the water to have a weak tea or coffee color. Certain types of bacteria use iron as an energy Source. They oxidize the iron from its ferrous state to its ferric state and deposit it in the slimy gelatinous material which surround them. These bacteria grow in stringy clumps and are found in most iron bearing waters.

Treatment - Ferrous iron (clear water iron) can be removed with a softener provided it is less than 0.5 ppm for each grain of hardness and the pH of the water is greater than 6.8. If the ferrous iron is more than 5.0 ppm, it must be converted to ferric iron by contact with a oxidizing agent such as chlorine, before it can be removed by mechanical filtration. Ferric iron (red water iron) can simply be removed by mechanical filtration. Heme iron can be removed by an organic scavenger anion resin, or by oxidation with chlorine followed by mechanical filtration. Oxidizing agents such as chlorine will also kill iron bacteria if it is present.

Source - Lead (Pb+2) found in fresh water usually indicates contamination from metallurgical wastes or from lead-containing industrial poisons. Lead in drinking water is primarily from the corrosion of the lead solder used to put together the copper piping. Lead in the body can cause serious damage to the brain, kidneys, nervous system, and red blood cells. The US EPA considers lead to be a highly toxic metal and a major health threat. The current level of lead allowable in drinking water is 0.05 mg/l.

Treatment - Lead can be reduced considerably with a water softener. Activated carbon filtration can also reduce lead to a certain extent. Reverse Osmosis can remove 94 to 98 % of the lead in drinking water at the point-of-use. Distillation will also remove the lead from drinking water.

Source - In July 1976, there was an outbreak of pneumonia effecting 221 people attending the annual Pennsylvania American Legion convention at the Bellvue-Stratford Hotel in Philadelphia. Out of the 221 people infected, 34 died. It wasn't until December 1977 that microbiologists were able to isolate a bacterium from the autopsy of the lung tissue of one of the legionnaires. The bacterium was named "Legionella pneumophila" (Legionella in honor of the American Legion, and pneumophila which is Greek for "lung-loving") and was found to be completely different from other bacteria. Unlike patients with other pneumonias, patients with legionnaire's disease often have severe gastrointestinal symptoms, including diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting. The US EPA has not set a MCL (maximum contamination level) for Legionella, instead it has outlined the Treatment method which must be followed and the MCLG is 0 mg/l.

Treatment - Chemical oxidation-disinfection followed by retention, then filtration could be used. Since Legionella is a bacteria, Reverse osmosis or Ultrafiltration are the preferred removal techniques.